Transitions less than 0.4% are not shown. Hover over the flows to see exact percentages and the degree of uncertainty, represented by the maximun R-hat value; hover over the nodes to see total percentages for each party in a given year and to highlight the flows into and out of that party from the previous year and into the following year.

Percentages may differ slightly from those in the transition tables below due to rounding.

Transition Tables

Estimated Voter Transitions from 1851 to 1852
Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting share in 1851
Democrat 20.6 9.1 0.4 2.5 32.6
Whig 7.7 15.7 0.6 7.3 31.3
Free Soil 0.7 0.3 0.9 0.9 2.8
Non-voting 4.6 4.9 1.2 22.6 33.3
share in 1852 33.6 30.0 3.1 33.3 100.0
Estimated Voter Transitions from 1852 to 1853
Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting share in 1852
Democrat 26.5 2.2 0.9 4.0 33.6
Whig 3.4 17.2 5.0 4.4 30.0
Free Soil 0.4 0.2 2.2 0.3 3.1
Non-voting 1.6 1.8 1.2 28.7 33.3
share in 1853 31.9 21.4 9.3 37.4 100.0
Estimated Voter Transitions from 1853 to 1854
Democrat Whig Free Soil Temperance Non-voting share in 1853
Democrat 22.0 1.7 0.4 1.6 6.2 31.9
Whig 2.0 13.7 0.5 3.1 2.1 21.4
Free Soil 1.7 1.4 1.1 3.4 1.7 9.3
Non-voting 3.0 3.0 0.6 2.7 28.1 37.4
share in 1854 28.7 19.8 2.6 10.8 38.1 100.0
Estimated Voter Transitions from 1854 to 1855
Democrat Whig Know Nothing Non-voting share in 1854
Democrat 16.5 1.4 7.3 3.5 28.7
Whig 3.2 4.2 9.3 3.1 19.8
Free Soil 0.4 0.4 1.0 0.8 2.6
Temperance 2.1 1.2 6.0 1.5 10.8
Non-voting 4.7 1.8 4.1 27.5 38.1
share in 1855 26.9 9.0 27.7 36.4 100.0
Estimated Voter Transitions from 1855 to 1856
Democrat Whig Know Nothing Republican Non-voting share in 1855
Democrat 20.3 0.1 2.4 0.4 3.7 26.9
Whig 1.5 0.4 2.5 2.3 2.3 9.0
Know Nothing 6.2 0.2 16.7 0.9 3.7 27.7
Non-voting 3.9 0.5 3.8 3.0 25.2 36.4
share in 1856 31.9 1.2 25.4 6.6 34.9 100.0
Estimated Voter Transitions from 1856 to 1857
Democrat Republican Non-voting share in 1856
Democrat 24.2 2.8 4.9 31.9
Whig 0.3 0.7 0.2 1.2
Know Nothing 2.3 18.4 4.7 25.4
Republican 0.4 5.4 0.8 6.6
Non-voting 2.9 3.4 28.6 34.9
share in 1857 30.1 30.7 39.2 100.0

Covariates of Transitions and Vote Shares

The left-most tables below show the covariates that were used for each transition estimate; the right-most table shows the R-squared values for the correlation of significant covariates with party vote share. Blue indicates a positive relationship and red indicates a negative relationship.

Note how often the neighborhood effect of the previous election’s vote share (spatial lag, in technical terms) was selected for the transition models. This represents geographic clustering in electoral behavior that persists even after accounting for wealth, urbanization, religious affiliation, and other measurable factors — likely reflecting local political culture, party organization, and social networks that spread influence across neighboring towns. The strongly local character of these influences may help explain why the models failed to converge: different regions crystallized around different patterns, resisting the uniform statewide trend that the model assumes.

Transition covariates, 1851 to 1852
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting
1850 Congregationalist percentage Negative Positive Positive Negative
1850 Episcopalian percentage Positive Negative Negative Positive
1850 Irish-born percentage NA NA Negative NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA Positive Negative NA
1850 farm-occupation percentage Positive Negative Positive NA
1850 foreign-born percentage Negative NA Negative Positive
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA Positive
1850 young adult male percentage Negative Negative Positive Positive
1851 Democrat neighborhood effect Positive Positive Negative Negative
1851 Free Soil neighborhood effect Negative Positive Positive Positive
1851 Whig neighborhood effect Positive NA NA Negative
1851 non-voting neighborhood effect Negative Negative NA Positive
1860 farm-occupation percentage Positive Negative NA Negative
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA Negative NA Positive
Distance to railroad Positive Negative Positive NA
Latitude Positive Negative Positive NA
Longitude Negative Negative Positive Positive
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency Negative Positive NA NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency Negative Negative NA Positive
Mean age in 1850 Positive Negative NA NA
Mean wealth Negative NA Negative Positive
Vote share covariate R2 values, 1852
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage 0 0 NA 0.002
1850 Congregationalist percentage 0.027 0.046 0.001 0.005
1850 Episcopalian percentage 0.001 0.005 0.007 NA
1850 Irish-born percentage NA NA 0 NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA 0.003 0.021 NA
1850 Pietist percentage 0.01 NA NA 0.001
1850 farm-occupation percentage 0 0.032 0 NA
1850 foreign-born percentage 0.008 NA 0.003 0.01
1850 young adult male percentage 0.017 0.05 NA 0.07
1860 farm-occupation percentage 0.013 NA NA 0.001
1860 foreign-born percentage NA 0.001 NA NA
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA 0.001
Distance to railroad 0.001 0.002 0.002 NA
Latitude 0.047 0.003 0 0.031
Longitude 0.027 0.017 0.066 0.021
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency 0.011 0.009 NA NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency 0.008 0.013 NA 0.019
Mean age in 1850 0.004 0 NA NA
Mean age in 1860 NA NA NA NA
Mean wealth 0.001 NA 0.008 0.001
Transition covariates, 1852 to 1853
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage NA Negative Positive NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA Positive NA Negative
1850 Episcopalian percentage NA NA NA Positive
1850 Methodist percentage NA NA Negative Positive
1850 Pietist percentage NA Negative NA Positive
1850 farm-occupation percentage Positive NA Negative NA
1850 foreign-born percentage Negative NA Negative Positive
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA Positive
1850 young adult male percentage Negative Negative NA Positive
1852 Democrat neighborhood effect Positive NA NA Negative
1852 Free Soil neighborhood effect Negative NA Positive NA
1852 Whig neighborhood effect Positive Positive NA Negative
1852 non-voting neighborhood effect Negative Negative NA Positive
1860 farm-occupation percentage Positive NA Negative NA
1860 foreign-born percentage Negative Positive NA NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA Positive
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient Negative Negative Positive Positive
Distance to railroad Positive Negative Positive Negative
Latitude Positive NA Negative Negative
Longitude NA Negative Positive Positive
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency Negative Positive NA NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency NA Negative Positive Positive
Mean age in 1850 Positive NA NA Negative
Mean age in 1860 NA NA NA Negative
Vote share covariate R2 values, 1853
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage NA 0.001 0.004 NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA 0.028 NA 0.007
1850 Methodist percentage NA NA 0.006 NA
1850 Pietist percentage NA 0 NA 0.013
1850 farm-occupation percentage NA NA 0.003 NA
1850 foreign-born percentage NA NA 0.073 0.005
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA 0.001
1850 young adult male percentage 0.011 0.001 NA 0.018
1860 farm-occupation percentage 0.004 NA 0.018 NA
1860 foreign-born percentage NA 0.008 NA NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA NA
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA 0.018 0.015 NA
Distance to railroad NA NA 0.056 0.019
Latitude 0.049 0.006 0.001 0.04
Longitude NA 0.054 0.056 0.017
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency NA NA 0.022 0.006
Mean age in 1850 0.003 NA NA 0.002
Transition covariates, 1853 to 1854
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Temperance Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage NA Negative Positive NA NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA Positive Positive Negative Negative
1850 Episcopalian percentage NA NA NA Positive Positive
1850 Irish-born percentage NA NA NA Negative NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA NA Negative Negative Positive
1850 farm-occupation percentage Positive NA NA Negative NA
1850 foreign-born percentage Negative NA Negative Negative Positive
1850 young adult male percentage Negative Negative NA Positive Positive
1853 Democrat neighborhood effect Positive NA Negative Positive Negative
1853 Free Soil neighborhood effect NA Negative Positive Positive NA
1853 Whig neighborhood effect Positive Positive NA NA Negative
1853 non-voting neighborhood effect Negative NA NA Negative Positive
1860 farm-occupation percentage Positive NA NA Negative NA
1860 foreign-born percentage NA NA Positive Negative NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient Negative NA Negative NA Positive
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient Negative NA NA NA NA
Latitude Positive NA Positive Negative NA
Longitude NA Negative Positive Negative NA
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency NA NA Positive Positive NA
Mean age in 1850 Positive NA NA Negative Negative
Mean age in 1860 NA NA NA Negative NA
Mean wealth NA Positive Negative Negative NA
Vote share covariate R2 values, 1854
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Temperance Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage 0.008 0 0.004 NA NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage 0.011 0.034 0.004 NA 0.005
1850 Episcopalian percentage 0 NA NA NA NA
1850 Irish-born percentage 0.027 NA NA NA NA
1850 Methodist percentage 0.011 NA 0.006 NA 0.005
1850 Pietist percentage NA 0 NA NA 0.006
1850 farm-occupation percentage 0 NA NA NA NA
1850 foreign-born percentage 0.03 NA 0.004 NA 0.004
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA NA 0.001
1850 young adult male percentage 0.02 0.045 NA 0.04 0.023
1860 farm-occupation percentage 0.011 NA NA NA NA
1860 foreign-born percentage 0.003 0.003 NA NA NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient 0.003 NA NA NA 0.008
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA NA 0.001
Distance to railroad 0.021 NA NA NA 0.005
Latitude 0.062 NA 0.014 0.042 0.039
Longitude 0.001 0.03 0.035 NA 0.017
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency 0.002 NA NA NA NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency 0.005 NA NA NA 0.009
Mean age in 1850 0.008 NA NA NA 0.001
Mean age in 1860 0.014 NA NA 0.005 NA
Mean wealth 0.001 0.022 0.004 NA NA
Transition covariates, 1854 to 1855
covariate Democrat Whig Know Nothing Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage NA NA Positive NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA Positive NA NA
1850 Episcopalian percentage Positive NA Negative NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA NA NA Positive
1850 Pietist percentage Negative NA NA Positive
1850 farm-occupation percentage NA NA Negative NA
1850 foreign-born percentage NA NA Negative Positive
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA Negative Positive
1850 young adult male percentage Negative NA NA Positive
1854 Democrat neighborhood effect Positive NA Positive NA
1854 Free Soil neighborhood effect Negative Negative Positive Positive
1854 Temperance neighborhood effect NA NA Positive NA
1854 Whig neighborhood effect Positive Positive NA Negative
1854 non-voting neighborhood effect Negative NA Negative Positive
1860 foreign-born percentage NA Negative NA NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA Negative Positive
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA Negative NA
Distance to railroad NA NA Positive Negative
Latitude NA Negative Positive NA
Longitude Negative Negative Positive NA
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency Negative NA Positive NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency NA Positive Negative NA
Mean age in 1850 Positive NA Negative NA
Mean age in 1860 NA Positive Negative NA
Mean wealth NA Positive Negative NA
Vote share covariate R2 values, 1855
covariate Democrat Whig Know Nothing Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage 0.001 NA 0.001 NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA 0.014 NA NA
1850 Episcopalian percentage 0.007 NA 0.005 NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA NA NA NA
1850 Pietist percentage 0.008 NA NA 0.05
1850 farm-occupation percentage NA NA 0.011 NA
1850 foreign-born percentage NA NA 0.019 0.019
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA 0.005 0.001
1850 young adult male percentage 0.018 NA NA 0.029
1860 foreign-born percentage NA NA 0.002 NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA 0.003 0.001
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA 0 NA
Distance to railroad NA NA 0.006 0.023
Latitude NA NA 0.015 NA
Longitude 0.036 0.138 0.042 0.018
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency NA NA 0.005 NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency NA 0.022 0.012 NA
Mean age in 1850 0.039 NA 0.009 NA
Mean age in 1860 NA 0.008 0.004 NA
Mean wealth NA 0.009 NA NA
Transition covariates, 1855 to 1856
covariate Democrat Whig Know Nothing Republican Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage NA Negative NA NA NA
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA Positive Positive NA Negative
1850 Episcopalian percentage NA Positive Negative NA Positive
1850 Irish-born percentage NA NA Negative NA NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA Positive Negative NA Positive
1850 Pietist percentage Negative NA NA NA NA
1850 foreign-born percentage NA Positive Negative NA Positive
1850 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA Positive Negative NA NA
1850 young adult male percentage Negative Negative NA NA Positive
1855 Democrat neighborhood effect Positive NA NA NA Negative
1855 Whig neighborhood effect NA Positive NA NA NA
1855 non-voting neighborhood effect Negative Negative Negative NA Positive
1860 farm-occupation percentage Positive Negative NA NA Negative
1860 foreign-born percentage NA Negative NA NA NA
1860 real-wealth Gini coefficient NA Negative NA NA NA
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA Negative NA NA Positive
Distance to railroad NA Negative NA NA NA
Latitude NA Negative NA Positive NA
Longitude NA Negative NA NA NA
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency Negative Positive Positive NA NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency NA Positive Negative NA NA
Mean age in 1850 Positive Negative NA NA Negative
Mean age in 1860 NA Positive NA NA NA
Mean wealth NA NA Positive Negative NA
Vote share covariate R2 values, 1856
covariate Democrat Whig Free Soil Non-voting
1850 Baptist percentage 0 0 NA 0.002
1850 Congregationalist percentage 0.027 0.046 0.001 0.005
1850 Episcopalian percentage 0.001 0.005 0.007 NA
1850 Irish-born percentage NA NA 0 NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA 0.003 0.021 NA
1850 Pietist percentage 0.01 NA NA 0.001
1850 farm-occupation percentage 0 0.032 0 NA
1850 foreign-born percentage 0.008 NA 0.003 0.01
1850 young adult male percentage 0.017 0.05 NA 0.07
1860 farm-occupation percentage 0.013 NA NA 0.001
1860 foreign-born percentage NA 0.001 NA NA
1860 total-wealth Gini coefficient NA NA NA 0.001
Distance to railroad 0.001 0.002 0.002 NA
Latitude 0.047 0.003 0 0.031
Longitude 0.027 0.017 0.066 0.021
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency 0.011 0.009 NA NA
Mean 1860 US immigrant residency 0.008 0.013 NA 0.019
Mean age in 1850 0.004 0 NA NA
Mean age in 1860 NA NA NA NA
Mean wealth 0.001 NA 0.008 0.001
Transition covariates, 1856 to 1857
covariate Democrat Republican Non-voting
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA Positive Negative
1850 Episcopalian percentage NA Negative Positive
1850 Irish-born percentage Positive NA NA
1850 Methodist percentage NA NA Positive
1850 Pietist percentage Negative NA NA
1856 Democrat neighborhood effect Positive NA Negative
1856 Republican neighborhood effect Negative NA NA
1856 Whig neighborhood effect Positive Positive Negative
1856 non-voting neighborhood effect Negative Negative Positive
Latitude NA Positive NA
Longitude Negative NA Positive
Mean 1850 US immigrant residency NA Positive NA
Mean wealth Positive NA Negative
Vote share covariate R2 values, 1857
covariate Democrat Republican Non-voting
1850 Congregationalist percentage NA 0.051 NA
1850 Pietist percentage 0.022 NA 0.033
Longitude 0.067 NA 0.044